Debriefing works: Successful retraction of misinformation following a fake news study (preprint)

In recent years there has been an explosion of research on misinformation, often involving experiments where participants are presented with fake news stories and subsequently debriefed. In order to avoid potential harm to participants or society, to is imperative that we establish whether debriefing procedures remove any lasting influence of misinformation. In the current study, we followed-up 1547 participants one week after they had been exposed to fake news stories about COVID-19 and then provided with a detailed debriefing. We found that false memories and beliefs for previously-seen fake stories declined sharply from the original study, suggesting that the debrief was effective. Moreover, the debriefing also resulted in reduced false memories and beliefs for novel fake stories, suggesting a broader impact on participants’ willingness to accept misinformation. Effects of misinformation on planned health behaviours observed in the original study were also eliminated at follow-up. Our findings suggest that when a careful and thorough debriefing procedure is followed, researchers can safely and ethically conduct misinformation research on sensitive topics.

False memories for true and false vaccination information form in line with pre-existing vaccine opinions (preprint)

Misinformation has continually threatened efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic, with vaccine misinformation now a key concern. False memories for misinformation can influence behavioural intentions, yet little is known about the factors affecting (false) memories for vaccine-related news items. Across two experiments (total N = 1,481), this paper explores the effects of pre-existing vaccine opinions on reported memories for true and false news items. In Study 1, participants (n = 817) were exposed to fabricated pro- or anti-vaccine news items, and then asked if they have a memory of this news event having occurred. In Study 2, participants (n = 646) were exposed to true pro- or anti-vaccine news items. The results showed that news items were more likely to be remembered when they aligned with participants’ pre-existing vaccine beliefs. We conclude by encouraging researchers to consider the role of attitudinal bias when developing interventions to reduce susceptibility to misinformation.

Measuring the effects of misinformation exposure and beliefs on behavioural intentions (preprint)

Misinformation has been a pressing issue since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic, threatening our ability to effectively act on the crisis. Nevertheless, little is known about the actual effects of fake news on behavioural intentions. Does exposure to or belief in misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines affect people’s intentions to receive such a vaccine? This paper attempts to address this question via three preregistered experiments (N=3463). In Study 1, participants (n=1269) were exposed to fabricated pro- or anti-vaccine information or to neutral true information, and then asked about their intentions to get vaccinated. In Study 2, participants (n=646) were exposed to true pro- and anti-vaccine information, while Study 3 (n=1548) experimentally manipulated beliefs in novel misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines. The results showed that exposure to false information on the vaccines did not affect the participants’ intentions to get vaccinated, even when multiple exposures led them to believe the headlines to be more accurate. An exploratory meta-analysis of studies 1 and 3 (n=2683) showed that exposure to false information both supporting and opposing COVID-19 vaccines actually increased vaccination intentions. We conclude by cautioning researchers against equating exposure to misinformation or perceived accuracy of false news with actual behaviours.

Psychological effects of government measures taken to face COVID-19 (preprint)

Several governments have implemented strict measures in order to reduce the spread of COVID-19, such as lockdown measures. However, these measures have brought negative consequences at an individual level by increasing the psychological distress already exacerbated by the pandemic. In the present study, we evaluated the role of cognitive emotion regulation strategies and variables related to social support, hobbies, seeking information related to COVID-19, perceived risk of infection, and age on the levels of anxiety and depression during the lockdown in a sample of 663 Spanish-speaking adults. By using multiple regression analyses with a backward model selection procedure, 26% of the variance in anxiety was predicted by specific cognitive emotion regulation strategies, perceived risk of infection, number of hobbies, and seeking information about COVID-19. A similar procedure was used to build a model predicting depression. The resulting model predicted 38% of the variance in depression, and included specific emotion regulation strategies and age. Significant differences were found in the use of emotion regulation strategies and the experience of anxiety and depression between men and women, with women experiencing higher levels of both anxiety and depression. Based on our results, recommendations are provided for improving coping with stressful events where lockdown measures are taken.

Quantifying the effects of fake news on behaviour: Evidence from a study of COVID-19 misinformation. (preprint)

Previous research has argued that fake news may have grave consequences for health behaviour, but surprisingly, no empirical data have been provided to support this assumption. This issue takes on new urgency in the context of the coronavirus pandemic, and the accompanying wave of online misinformation. In this large preregistered study (N = 3746) we investigated the effect of a single exposure to fabricated news stories about COVID-19 on related behavioural intentions. We observed small but measurable effects on some behavioural intentions but not others – for example, participants who read a story about problems with a forthcoming contact-tracing app reported a 5% reduction in willingness to download the app. These data suggest that one-off fake news exposure may have behavioural consequences, though the effects are not large. We also found no effects of providing a general warning about the dangers of online misinformation on response to the fake stories, regardless of the framing of the warning in positive or negative terms. This suggests that generic warnings about online misinformation, such as those used by governments and social media companies, are unlikely to be effective. We conclude with a call for more empirical research on the real-world consequences of fake news.

Individual differences in susceptibility to false memories for COVID-19 fake news (preprint)

Exposure to ‘fake news’ can result in false memories, with possible consequences for downstream behaviour. Given the sharp rise in online misinformation during the coronavirus pandemic, it is important to understand the factors that influence the development of false memories. In a large, preregistered study (N = 3,746) we measured susceptibility to false memories following exposure to fabricated news stories about the pandemic, and investigated the effect of individual differences in (1) knowledge about COVID-19, (2) engagement with media or discussion about the coronavirus, (3) anxiety about COVID-19 and (4) analytical reasoning. We report that objectively-assessed knowledge about COVID-19 was associated with fewer false memories and with better discrimination between true and false stories. In contrast, participants who believed themselves to be very knowledgeable were more likely to report a memory for any story, true or false. Individuals who reported high levels of media engagement or anxiety about COVID-19 were also biased towards ‘remembering’ any given story, while also showed heightened sensitivity to the difference between true and false stories. Finally, higher levels of analytical reasoning were associated with fewer false memories and with a stricter threshold for reporting a memory for any story. These data suggest that false memories can form in response to fake COVID-19 news, and that susceptibility to this misinformation is affected by the individual’s knowledge about and interaction with COVID-19 information, as well as their tendency to think critically.